A historical agreement attributed to Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (c. 584–644 CE), the second caliph of Islam. The covenant, also referred to as the pact, outlined the rights and responsibilities of non-Muslims, especially Christians and Jews, living under Muslim rule after the early Islamic conquests. These protected communities were known as dhimmis, or people granted protection in exchange for loyalty to the state and payment of a special tax called jizya. The covenant also shaped Islamic policies toward religious minorities, guaranteeing safety for lives, properties, churches, and religious practices, while imposing certain social and legal restrictions, including limits on building new places of worship, carrying weapons, or publicly displaying religious symbols.
Historians debate the exact origins and authenticity of the covenant. Several versions exist, and some may have been written long after Umar’s lifetime. However, the covenant is generally said to have come about following the transition from Christian to Muslim rule during Caliph Umar’s conquest of Jerusalem in 638 CE. Jerusalem Patriarch Sophronius is said to have handed the keys of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre directly to Caliph Umar, who refused to pray inside the church to avoid setting a precedent that could threaten the Christian identity of the site. He opted to pray outside the church instead. Despite scholarly disagreements, the Covenant of Umar remains an influential text in discussions about Islamic governance, interfaith relations, and the historical treatment of minorities in Muslim societies.